Colonial Gangster

When one thinks of organized crime in New York, the Mafia or the Irish “Westies” usually comes to mind. But more than a century before the birth of gangsterism, a loose confederacy of poor Irish, African slaves, and Spanish negros formed a primitive organized crime syndicate that dominated the underworld in colonial New York.

In 1741, an alleged conspiracy to burn down New York and murder the white elite was uncovered. The alleged ringleader of this plot was John Hughson, an illiterate, Irish tavern owner who illegally served African slaves. Hughson’s own wife and daughter, and several slaves that frequented his tavern, were also accused of being members in this conspiracy. Daniel Horsmanden, one of the judges who tried these supposed conspirators, collected an assortment of court documents pertaining to the trial and put them into one book, A History of the Negro Plot. While certainly biased towards the existence of this conspiracy, and the lack of innocence of all of those tried, Horsmanden’s documents give us a glimpse of a primitive crime syndicate that operated in colonial New York. But besides Horsmanden’s own biases, the book is filled with testimony of informants who have “flipped” to “rat” on behalf of the government, or slaves, who on the verge of brutal execution, decided to reveal their participation in this “dark confederacy.” So to the historian, the condition under which these witnesses gave their testimony must also be considered.  While this paper deals with the organized gangs that were uncovered during this trial, it will also cover the alleged planning of the conspiracy, which could be argued was an act of organized crime in itself.

New York City always seemed to be a haven for criminals. Fifty percent of all crime that took place in the colonies, occurred in New York. Four times as much theft was reported in the city than the outlaying country side. Surprisingly, slaves were tried for crimes in far fewer numbers then their percentage of population.  To give an example, over ninety percent of all crimes committed in New York were by men. 7.5 percent of those men were committed by blacks. Between the winters of 1740-41, the burglary rate in New York was on the rise. Even though the majority of men tried for crimes against persons and crimes against public order were white, those tried for crimes against property were slaves.  This statistic suggest that while mostly white men were arrested and tried for getting drunk in public and fighting in the streets, slaves were on average were to participate in burglary. In most cases, the victim of these crimes would be the slave masters themselves, who commonly did not report the crimes because of fear they would have to explain to the court why they could not control their slaves. Since slaves, on average, were more likely to commit burglary, why did slaves steal? It could be to fight the institution of slavery itself, or it could be simply out of necessity, for survival. The most likely reason for slaves committing burglary is the same reason that anyone commits burglary, for financial gain.

If slaves stole goods from their masters, then what would they do with it after that? It would be a similar answer to what modern burglars would do, take it to a fence. Defined by Webster dictionary, a “fence” is either a place where stolen goods are purchased or an actual receiver of stolen goods. Both John Hughson and his tavern perfectly fit both of those definitions. As stated earlier, the illiterate Hughson moved to New York from the country to open a tavern. Hughson owned one of the few taverns in New York that catered to slaves, which was illegal. Not only did he allow slaves into his establishment, but he also tolerated the company of slaves personally. Hughson allowing slaves to enter and drink in his establishment would be a trait he would share with gangsters that owned bars in the 20th Century. Several dance halls that operated in the 20s and 30s were owned by Jewish and Italian gangsters. Money, not skin color, being the ultimate admission ticket, race mixing in these clubs became so prevalent that the Klu Klux Klan devoted a considerable amount of resources to destroying them. Also, in the early years of the 20th Century, Mafia owned clubs in  New Orleans housed a new kind of music called “jazz” which was shunned by many of the white, mainstream establishments. Both being the ultra-capitalist, Hughson and his gangster descendants, despite what society would dictate, wouldn't let skin color get in the way of making money.

One of the most frequent group of patrons at Hughson’s tavern was a gang called the Geneva Club. Named after a shipment of Dutch gin that the group stole years earlier from the docks of New York, the Geneva Club was an organized criminal gang of slaves that were responsible for a fair amount of burglary that occurred along the New York waterfront. Lead by slave Caesar Varick, and his friends, Prince Auboyneau and Cuffee Philipse, the Geneva Club was one of the leading criminal groups of New York. The way these gangs would operate is that they would steal goods, and then deliver them to Hughson’s tavern. Hughson, the fence, who would sell the stolen goods would either in return give the gang members money or, most commonly, would pay them in alcohol. But the Geneva Club wasn't the only organized criminal slave gang that operated in the New York underworld. The Smiths Fly Boys, the Long Bridge Boys, and the Free Masons were all slave gangs that burglarized New York City . Even though it is only documented that the Geneva Club used Hughson’s tavern as a fence, it is not out of the question that all the rest of these gangs used Hughson as a source to fence their stolen goods.

The only reason that the conspiracy came to light in the first place was through an act of crime. Christopher Wilson, a cabin boy for an English man of war, was planning to rob the shop of Robert Hogg. The Hoggs, who sold linen, noticed that Wilson was particularly eyeing the Spanish mill coins that Mrs. Hoggs kept in the drawer in the shop. Soon after, on February 28th , the coins disappeared. It is not clear if Wilson stole the coins himself, or if he told members of the Geneva Club about it, or if members of the Geneva Club caught wind of the potential score and decided to muscle in on the burglary for themselves. What is known that the coins were gone. Remembering his fascination with the coins, Mrs. Hoggs told the Sheriff that Wilson had committed the crime. When the Sheriff asked Wilson about it, he claimed that a soldier named John Quinn had shown him the coins at Hughson’s tavern. Days after, the sheriff could not find anybody by the name of Quinn. He questioned Wilson again about the burglary. It is not stated in Horsmanden’s History of the Negro Plot what the Sheriff did to make Wilson confess, but he did. Wilson now told the Sheriff that slaves and Geneva Club members Caesar Varick and Prince Auboyneau committed the crime. But why did Wilson lie to the authorities? And who is this mysterious John Quinn? It was later uncovered that Wilson wasn't exactly lying to the authorities, but he wasn't telling the truth either. One of Caesar’s most popular aliases was John Quinn. In his book The Great New York Conspiracy, Peter Charles Hoffer claims that even Caesar wasn't aware of his alias. Hoffer explains that aliases weren't nicknames like criminals use today, but when criminals would scheme and talk about committing crimes, they would make up names for each other to limit their exposure and conceal their identities.

Both Caesar and Prince were immediately arrested, and since they both had prior convictions for theft, the case seemed to be solved. Probably in an attempt to distance himself from the two gang members, Hughson flipped and admitted to the authorities that both Caesar and Prince were both in his tavern with the stolen coins. The case should have ended here. Both Caesar and Prince were accused by two white men(Wilson and Hughson), and would probably be executed for the crime. But, the spark that would eventually ignite a flair of conspiracy would come from Hughson’s sixteen year old indentured servant, Mary Burton. While out buying candles for Hughson, she admitted to the shop owners, the Kannadys, that she had a greater knowledge of the recent burglary than anyone else. The Kannadys quickly ran to the police and told them that Mary Burton had knowledge of the Hogg’s burglary. When the authorities questioned Burton, she first claimed that she had no such knowledge of the robbery. But as authorities started to put more pressure on her, she broke down in tears. She claimed to the police that if she gave the authorities information that she would be murdered by either Hughson or members of the Geneva Club. Eventually, she would give in to the authorities and became a government witness. Her first revelation was that the Irish prostitute that lived in Hughson’s tavern, Irish Peg, had been intimate with Caesar, and bore his child a year earlier. When this was eventually proven to be true, in Horsmanden’s mind anyway, Burton became a credible witness. Then Burton said that Hughson had stolen goods hidden in his basement. Hughson gave up the goods to the authorities, but claimed he didn't know how they got there.

Over a week after Hughson gave up his goods to the authorities, on March 18th,  a fire broke out at the Fort George. The fire didn't only engulf the Fort, but also the Govenor’s mansion, the armory, and the chapel. Six more fires would break out between March 18th and May 6th. May 6th is also the same day that John Hughson and his wife, Sarah, were both arrested for possession of stolen goods. Who was setting these fires? And why did the fires stop the day that John Hughson was arrested? It was not unusual for criminals to set fire to a residence or a shop to steal people’s goods while the home or business owners were busy trying to put out the flames. Even though it takes place over a century later, this popular criminal act can be seen recreated in Martin Scorsese’s Gangs of New York (2002). Several people whose houses were engulfed in flames complained to local magistrates that they suffered great material losses not by the fire, but rather by people stealing it from them.  Even though the identities or the reason that these fires were started, whispers of conspiracy traveled through New York. Witnesses near the fires claim they saw negroes starting them.

Amid this hotbed of paranoia, a conspiracy began to take shape. While giving testimony about the Hoggs robbery, Burton accidently slipped that she may have known something more about the fires that had been said. When asked, she said she would not divulge the information she had. Horsmaden tried everything, from promising her protection from the people she was about to accuse to telling her that she would see jail time is she stayed silent. It was only the threat of answering to God in the afterlife that shook up Mary Burton enough to talk. She was the first domino to fall. Burton told the grand jury that the same slaves that brought the stolen coins to Hughson’s, Caesar and Prince, along with slave Cuffee Phillips, often met with Hughson to talk about burning down the city, killing all of the white elites, and stealing their goods. After the “revolution”, Hughson would proclaim himself “king” of New York and Caesar would be governor. Hughson went as far as to even purchase eight guns and several swords to arm the criminal insurrection.Barton would admit that over thirty slaves would be apart of this alleged plot and that she witnessed a strange induction ceremony. Backed up by slaves that would eventually give testimony to the government, Hughson would gather the slaves, take out a bible, and swear each of them to an oath to establish code of silence about the plot. Caesar, acting as an enforcer, even put a pistol up to a slave’s chest to force him into the conspiracy.

Not soon after this information came out, both Caesar and Prince were executed, not for their part in this conspiracy, but rather for burglary. The next day, May 12th, John and Sarah Hughson were indicted for their part in the alleged conspiracy. Adding to the charges of “felonious receiving stolen goods”, which they were already charged for on May, 6th. Eventually, a slave named Quaco Roosevelt would be connected to the fires and was arrested. He admitted that he was angry that the Lt. Governor for banning him from seeing his girlfriend, a cook at Fort George. Quaco admits that Hughson put him up to starting the fire at the fort. Another slave, Bastian, testified that Hughson said that he intended to burn down the fort first, so he could disarm the colony. After that, Bastian  claimed that one of the slaves that was accompanying Hughson had something black in his hand, which he planned to use to burn down the fort with. Quaco would eventually be sentence to death for arson. Before his execution, Quaco was asked why did Hughson collude with slaves to burn the city down. Quaco simply replied: “To make himself rich.” Quaco wanted to confess more to the judges, but the mob that was there to see his execution demanded that the stalling stopped and the execution start. Quaco, along with Geneva Club member Cuffee, were both executed at the stake.

By the end of the trial, arraignments were made for 109 slaves. Of those thrown in jail, 72 slaves confessed their part in this “dark confederacy.” Out of all the slaves examined, 13 were burned at the stake and 18 were hung. John Hughson, along with his wife, were both hung, with the Irish prostitute Peg, on June 12th. Up to his death, Hughson claimed that he was never part of or had any knowledge of any conspiracy to set fire to the city and slaughter the white elite. Hughson’s Judas, Mary Burton, received a reward for being the first person to come forward with information about the conspiracy. As an indentured servant, she used her reward money to buy her freedom.

While Horsmanden was certain that most of  those accused were guilty, not all historians agree. So who was guilty of what? Both members of the Geneva Club and John Hughson were definitely both guilty of operating in the criminal underworld of New York. New crimes were even uncovered during the trial. Apparently, members of the Geneva Club heisted a crate of butter and sold it for profit. If any of the testimony in Horsmanden’s book is to be believed, then both Hughson and the Geneva Club decided to take their criminal enterprise to new levels. After taking over the city, Hughson would literally be “boss”, while Caesar would be his lieutenant. But could an illiterate tavern owner be capable of forming such a conspiracy? If so, Hughson didn't seem like he would take over the city for anything other than financial gain. Though being in charge of a gang of slaves, Hughson was never an outspoken abolitionist. He talked about financial equality, but never about equal rights. Hughson’s role and status in the New York underworld, his downfall being a turncoat that testified against him in court, and his sole motivation to “make himself richer”, could make him America’s first colonial gangster.

Sources
-A History of the Negro Plot-John Horsmanden
-The Great New York Conspiracy of 1741-Peter Charles Hoffer
-A History of Negro Slavery in New York-Edgar J. McManus
-The Gangs of New York-Herbert Asbury
-A Renegade History of the United States-Thaddeus Russell
-The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic-Peter Linebauh and Marcus Rediker