50 Years Later......

November 22, 1963

50 years ago today, Mafia boss Carlos Marcello sat in a crowded New Orleans courtroom awaiting to hear the verdict of the United States government's latest attempt to imprison him.

While closing arguments were going on in New Orleans, Attorney General Robert Kennedy was in the middle of presiding over a meeting on organized crime at the Justice Department in Washington. The major issues on the agenda were Chicago Mafia boss Sam Giancana, Tampa Mafia boss Santo Trafficante, Jr., Teamsters President Jimmy Hoffa, and of course Carlos Marcello. Kennedy, aware that Marcello's trial was ending today, was hoping to have a verdict to announce at the meeting.

By 1:30pm New Orleans time, the trial was winding down with Judge Herbert D Christenberry giving his fifteen minute charge to the jury. Just as he was officially about to hand the case to the jury, a bailiff approached the judge and handed him a note. With a bewildered look on his face, Judge Christenberry arose, and announced to the court that President Kennedy was shot in Dallas and feared dead. The courtroom erupted with confusion and shock. Marcello and his brother Joseph, who was also on trial, were lead out of the courtroom, emotionless.

By 2:15pm Washington time, Attorney General Kennedy was sitting poolside at his Virginia estate, when he received a phone call from FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover:

I have news for you. The President's been shot. I think it's serious. I'll call you back when I have more. 

Thirty minutes later, Hoover would phone Kennedy again, and unemotionally say:

The President's Dead.

Shocked that he received a phone call about his brother's death, rather than a call about Marcello's conviction, Robert Kennedy called off the afternoon session of his organized crime conference; the group would never meet again.

By 3:15 pm New Orleans time, the jury reconvened in the courtroom and the jury announced they have reached a verdict. In The United States vs. Carlos Marcello, both Marcello brothers received "not guilty" verdicts for the charges of conspiracy and perjury. With President Kennedy dead, and Attorney General Robert Kennedy soon resigning after his brother's death, the biggest threat to Marcello's empire had been removed.

Today

50 years after the assassination of President Kennedy, there have been both breakthroughs and setbacks to uncover the truth. From the passage of the JFK Act in 1992, to the CIA openly dragging out the release of records until their deadline (2017), the question if there was a conspiracy behind the assassination of President Kennedy still haunts modern America.

But maybe not as much as it should. Most people I talk to about the assassination of President Kennedy admit that they believe there was a conspiracy, but the phrase "we will never know" always seems to come after that. And yes, most likely, if there was a conspiracy, we will never know. But why be complacent with that? Why accept the fact that the government either knows or was involved with the assassination of one of its leaders. The term "We will never know" just lets everybody off the hook.

The obsession over one or more shooters doesn't help. Depending on who you ask, it was either impossible for Oswald to have shot President Kennedy by himself, or completely possible. There seems to be an insurmountable amount of evidence for both cases. Even though it is obviously a critical aspect of the Kennedy assassination, I believe people put far too much stock in it. Even if Oswald was a single shooter, that doesn't mean he was acting alone. The evidence leading up to the shooting is just as important as the shooting itself.

I'm not here trying to convince you that there was a conspiracy behind the assassination of President Kennedy. For that you should read both Ultimate Sacrifice and Legacy of Secrecy by Lamar Waldron. My point is to remind that there is still evidence that is yet to be released, and is continually being withheld by the government.

I finish off this post with a quote from the original JFK conspiracy theorist, Robert Kennedy. Shortly after hearing of his brother's death, Kennedy got into a discussion with his press agent, Edwin Guthman. According to Guthman, Kennedy said:

I thought they might get one of us..., but Jack, after what he'd been though, never worried about it. I thought it would be me. 

And while Robert Kennedy would go on to publicly endorse the findings of the Warren Commission, privately he was very critical of them, telling former presidential aide Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. that the Warren Commission did a "poor job", and he wondered how he long he could publicly continue to endorse it. (Brothers: The Hidden History of the Kennedy Years by David Talbot is a wonderful account of Robert Kennedy's doubts about the Warren Commission and his own secret investigation to uncover his brother's killers)

The Decline and Fall of the Galactic Empire

I miss Star Wars. I miss liking Star Wars, talking about Star Wars, and having nerd freak-outs in public arguing who would win in a fight: Jawas or Ewoks? (The answer obviously being Boba Fett)

With the upcoming release of a new trilogy, which has filled me with a very cautious optimism, I've started to see Star Wars in a new perspective, a historical/political perspective.

I was re-watching Episodes IV-VI the other day and found myself wondering if the Galactic Empire had truly found the answer to the sustainability of an empire: The Death Star.

Every great empire in the history of mankind has fallen, from the Romans to the British. While every Empire has fallen for a multitude of reasons, usually overexertion of the military and the exhaustion of the imperial economy is a common one.

With the Roman Empire for example, their answer to a problem was usually just throwing enough troops at the problem until it went away. While effective, this way of thinking obviously has its downfalls. You can see this kind of strategy mirrored in The Clone Wars, with both the Trade Federation and the Galactic Republic both basically having a renewable resource of cannon fodder.


Navy vs Army: Downfall of an Empire?

Did inter-service rivalry contribute to the downfall of the Galactic Empire? After World War II, the newly organized U.S. Air Force argued that because of nuclear weapons and the advancements in bombing technology, both the Marines and the Navy were obsolete. Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson met with Admiral Richard L. Connolly in 1949 and had a discussion about the future of the navy:

The Navy is on its way out. There’s no reason for having a Navy and a Marine Corps. General Bradley tells me amphibious operations are a thing of the past. We’ll never have any more amphibious operations. That does away with the Marine Corps. And the Air Force can do anything the Navy can do, so that does away with the Navy.

Surely political rivalries existed and continue to exists in the U.S. military, but no way such pettiness could be tolerated in the Galactic Empire, right?

The first instant we see any of the Imperial High Command, they are bickering. In the infamous scene in A New Hope, High Commander of the Army Cassio Tagge and Admiral Antonio Motti, who is later choked by Vader because of his disturbing lack of faith, are both arguing over the strategic vulnerability of the Death Star. The stakes are high for both officers. For Motti, who is an officer in the Imperial Navy, the Death Star is the chance for the Navy to be the dominate branch of the Imperial Armed Forces. Besides the rest of the galaxy, the Death Star is also a threat to High Commander Tagge, because a large army of stormtroopers and AT-ATs would be redundant after you have a battle station that has the ability to blow up a planet. Surely the Imperial Army would still exist, but both manpower and resources would be redirected from the Army to the Navy to support this new super weapon.

This may explain why stormtroopers are such poor shots, and Jedi mind tricks aside, how Luke, Obi Wan, C3PO, and R2D2 are able to avoid Imperial detection for the majority of the time they are on Tattoine. Either the stormtroopers are not motivated to find the missing plans for the Death Star, or the before mentioned funneling of resources from the Army to the Navy has already occurred and they are just poorly trained or possess faulty equipment.

The Death Star, The Tarkin Doctrine, and the Madman Richard Nixon

Lets go back to the Death Star itself. The purpose of this moon sized space station is to enforce the Tarkin Doctrine, named after Gran Moff Wilhuff Tarkin. The Tarkin Doctrine states that the most effective way to keep all the planets in line is with the fear of force rather than an act of force. That's what the Death Star was envisioned as, a symbol.  A reminder for the planets to bend to the will of the Empire. But not only does the Death Star need to exist to strike fear into the hearts of the citizens across the galaxy, but they must believe the Empire is willing to use it as well. That's probably why, despite Princess Leila's pleas that the location of the secret rebel base is on Dantooine, Gran Moff Tarkin destroys her home planet of Alderaan anyway.

In a way, the Tarkin Doctrine is a galactic spin of President Richard Nixon's Madman Theory. In October 1969, the United States military was ordered to full global readiness alert. As apart of this strategy, three bombers were armed with nuclear weapons and flew flight patterns near Soviet airspace for three straight days. This was an obvious indication to let the Soviet Union know that the madman Richard Nixon was loose. Though Nixon's planes headed straight for Moscow, his goal was to end the war in Vietnam. Nixon's reasoning was that if the Soviet Union thought that Nixon was crazy enough to launch a nuclear strike on Moscow, that the Vietnam War was getting out of hand, and the Soviet Union would force Hanoi to return to the Paris peace talks or risk losing Soviet support. Nixon also furthered his madman theory by increasing bombing runs on the North Vietnamese.

I call it the Madman Theory, Bob. I want the North Vietnamese to believe I've reached the point where I might do anything to stop the war. We'll just slip the word to them that, "for God's sake, you know Nixon is obsessed about communism. We can't restrain him when he's angry—and he has his hand on the nuclear button" and Ho Chi Minh himself will be in Paris in two days begging for peace. -President Nixon explaining The Madman Theory to Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman. 

But was Nixon really prepared to launch nuclear weapons? Unlikely. It is more believable that he was just trying to frighten both the Soviet Union and North Vietnam into peace by threatening to unleash a devastating weapon a hundred times more powerful than the one that was dropped on both Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the end, Nixon's madman theory didn't work. It turns out that the North Vietnamese were willing to accept far more greater casualties than Nixon had calculated. Nixon's bombings eventually crossed international borders, with Laos and Cambodia being heavily bombed. Instead of the further fear of force causing the Vietnamese to surrender, it just radicalized them as anti-American sentiment spread through the region.

This is similar to the Tarkin Doctrine. In a way, the Emperor has to be seen by the public as a madman to destroy an entire planet over the actions of a few. But unlike Nixon's Madman Theory, the Tarkin Doctrine was mildly successful. In A New Hope, after the destruction of Alderran, and the near destruction of Yavin IV, The Empire Strikes Back begins with the rebels retreating to Hoth, an uninhabited frozen world. Now, the rebels could have gone here just to keep their base even more of a secret from the Empire, but why would they pick such a hostile planet on which to hide? Is it because after the destruction of Alderran, and the near destruction of Yavin IV, that every other planet was afraid to take the rebels in, even after the destruction of the Death Star?

But there are flaws in the Tarkin Doctrine. In order to keep the galaxy on its knees, planets must be destroyed. Besides the human cost, which I'm sure wasn't an issue, there is a financial cost at stake as well. I'm not sure how the financial system of the Galactic Empire operates, but I'm sure Alderran was paying some kind of tax to the Empire, either in credits or in natural resources. So every time you destroy a planet, you destroy a source of income. Now, depending on the value of a planet, its destruction may be worth the cost to avoid a more costly war later if the influence of the rebel alliance spread.

Perhaps the largest flaw of the Tarkin Doctrine is that it had an opposite effect of its intention. The destruction of Alderran may have caused planets to hesitate to give the Rebel Alliance sanctuary, but it did not destroy the alliance. If anything it only strengthened their cause that the Empire would destroy a peaceful and innocent planet such as Alderran.


The Galactic Empire: Doomed From the Start?

In his book The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, Dr. Paul Kennedy says:

"Great powers in relative decline instinctively respond by spending more on "security", and thereby divert potential resources from "investment" and compound their long term dilemma."

Now, I don't know how much it cost to construct a Death Star, but if you googled it, the result will probably be "assload". Earlier this year a White House petition was started for the construction of a Death Star by the United States. In a response, the government estimated that it would cost $852 quadrillion dollars to build a Death Star; their source probably being this study done at Lehigh University. 

Anyway, the point is that a Death Star would cost alot. I'm not sure of the exchange rate between USD and Galactic Credits, but I think it's safe to say that a Death Star is one hell of an investment. An investment that could have been redirected elsewhere.

Since the construction of the Death Star began at the end of Revenge of the Sith, it wouldn't be fair to say that it was built when the Empire started to decline, but rather at its birth. Unless the Galactic Empire was failed to doom at its inception.

The Empire not only survived, but remained prosperous during the years between the end of Revenge of the Sith and the start of A New Hope, despite the majority of the galaxy not knowing the Death Star existed. The Empire was still able to force the planets to step into line without blowing them up. Money that was wasted on the Death Star could have been spent on training troops, improving infrastructure, anything. Instead it was spent on a weapon that did more harm than good for the stability of the Empire.

Ok, Emperor, so your Death Star blows up. You've lost quadrillions, along with the untold amount of men who were stationed on the Death Star. What's your next plan? Build another fucking Death Star. Not only are you going to waste more money on a another Death Star, but you're going to try to destroy the rebel fleet by luring them towards your battle station, which safety depends on the same fleet that couldn't protect your first Death Star? Now it's obvious that the construction of the second Death Star was the direct cause of the fall of the Galactic Empire, and it was all done because of "security".

Instead of spending an untold fortune on the construction of a second Death Star, the Empire should have trained its army to repel an attack from a cuddly horde of teddy bears.

Another reason that the Galactic Empire may have been a failure from its inception is because it was both sexist and xenophobic. There are no women or aliens in the Imperial Armed Forces. All the generals and the admirals are men. Unlike the rebels, who have both women and aliens leading their forces, the Galactic Empire bases its recruitment not on ability or intelligence, but rather on race and sex. A master tactician could be denied the chance to serve the Empire for not being a human male.


Un-Erotic Asphyxiation 

Darth Vader chokes people. That's what he does. Though it is particularity bad ass, it's not the best way to manage people. If the consequence for making a mistake or questioning the orders of your superior is death, then you tend not to do it.

For example, in Empire Strikes Back, the Empire is about to descend upon on the Hoth system for a surprise attack on the hidden rebel base. Admiral Ozzel brings the Imperial Fleet out of light-speed to close, so the rebels were able to detect the Imperial attack and prepare their defenses. Alerted by a General (this may be another example of inter-service rivalry, as Vader just accepts the General's version of events, and gives Admiral Ozzel no chance to explain his strategy) that the fleet has come out of light speed, and that the rebels have an energy shield surrounding the planet; Vader decides this is the Navy's fault, skypes with Admiral Ozzel, and then force chokes him to death. He then tells Ozzel's second in commander, Captain Piett, that he is now Admiral Piett, and given command of the fleet.

Vader's promotion of Piett is probably what led to the rebels escaping Hoth. Not only was Piett thrown into a new leadership position right before a major battle, but everyone down the line was as well. This could have thrown the Imperial Fleet into udder chaos, as nobody had any idea who was in charge. Also, if the only way to get a promotion in the Empire is for your boss to make a mistake and get killed, then its in your best interest for your boss to make a mistake.

I'm sure more of Hitler's generals would have told him that Operation Barbarossa was a cluster fuck waiting to happen if he wasn't so trigger happy.

Conclusion

So like The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire(The masterful work by Edawrd Gibbon, whose title I ripped off for this blog post), the Galactic Empire also had a decline and fall. And much like the Roman Empire, the Galactic Empire fell for a multitude of reasons. Inter-service rivalry, sexism and xenophobia in the armed forces, poor leadership, insane domestic policy, and lastly the Death Star all lead to the downfall of the Galactic Empire. I would say that the Empire only lasted only 23 years, but the Empire doesn't necessarily die with Palpatine and Vader. There are plenty of Moffs, Generals, and Admirals that can all decide that they are the rightful heirs to the Empire, and throw the galaxy into a civil war within a civil war as the remains of the Empire turn on itself.


Afterword

The basis of information for this blog post, save The Tarkin Doctrine,  came from the Star Wars films. There is an ocean of comics, books, video games, etc. that could easily disprove any of my points. But frankly, I don't have time to read through all that shit. So if it didn't happen in the movie, then for all intents and purposes for this blog post, that shit didn't happen.

Strange Bedfellows: The Birth of the Gay Liberation Movement and the Mafia

45 years ago today marks the anniversary of the Stonewall Riots, violent demonstrations waged by the members of the gay community, which is considered the catalyst for the foundation of the Gay Liberation Movement in America.

In the early hours of June 28, 1969, the Stonewall Inn was raided by the NYPD. Police raids on gay bars were not uncommon at the time, because they were illegal. Although tensions were already strained between the police and the gay community, this raid was considered more of an insult because it coincided with the funeral actress Judy Garland, an icon in the gay community.

Unlike normal raids on gay bars, where the suspects would cooperate fully with the authorities, the officers violent treatment of a lesbian trying to escape the raid caused the crowd outside to erupt into violence; the more the police tried to subdue the crowd, the more violent they became. The outnumbered cops quickly barricaded themselves within the Stonewall Inn, seeking sanctuary in the very place they came to terrorize. 

The Tactical Police Force (TPF) arrived as reinforcements to lift the siege that the officers trapped inside the Stonewall faced. Armed with night sticks and shields, the TPF formed a phalanx, and attempted to push the crowd back. In turn, many of the demonstrators formed a kick line and started singing. Suddenly, the police rushed the kick line, beating the demonstrators. Police chased rioters and then were in turned chased by clusters of rioters. The violence on the streets stopped at 4:00 AM. Thirteen people were arrested, several in the crowd were hospitalized, and four police officers were injured. 

Despite the Stonewall being completely destroyed, thousands of gatherers surrounded it the next night. Violence erupted again. Fires were started in garbage cans while police phalanxes and kick lines again battled for supremacy on Christopher Street. The next two days saw sporadic demonstrations because of the rain (1). 

Once the demonstrations had ended, the sense urgency for the gay community to unify was the biggest effect of the Stonewall Riots. In his book Towards Stonewall, Nicholas Edsall compares the Stonewall Riots to "any number of acts of radical protest and defiance in American history from the Boston Tea Party on. But the best and certainly a more nearly contemporary analogy is with Rosa Parks' refusal to move to the back of the bus in Montgomery, Alabama, in December 1955, which sparked the modern civil rights movement. Within months after Stonewall radical gay liberation groups and newsletters sprang up in cities and on college campuses across America and then across all of northern Europe as well." (2)


It has only come to light in the past few years why the police raided the Stonewall Inn that night. For years the reasoning was that the NYPD raided the club to harass homosexuals. While the police's actions towards the gay patrons of the bar was repulsive, the point of police presence at the Stonwall that night was part of a federal crackdown on the New York Mafia(3).


The Stonewall Inn was owned by the Genovese crime family(4). As mentioned earlier, gay establishments at the time were illegal, and not allowed to have an operating liquor licence. Like other underground establishments, the Stonewall Inn actually kept little alcohol on the premises. Usually the liquor was stored in a car outside, to avoid getting smashed or confiscated in police raids. Seeing that homosexuals were being shunned by society, the Mafia established a mutual beneficial relationship with the gay community. Without organized crime sheltering the gay community from the oppression of society, the Stonewall Riots would have never happened, hence the great call to arms across the gay community would have never taken place, or more realistically, would have just taken place at a later time and location.
But it would be dubious to commemorate the Mafia on a day that is reserved to celebrate gay liberation.


While the Mafia did provide a haven for the gay community to socialize, it came with a price. Besides the unhygienic conditions in which the Stonewall was maintained, those appointed by the Genovese family to run the bar,  like Ed "The Skull" Murphy, often committed blackmail and extortion among the Stonewall's weathlier patrons. A homosexual himself, Murphy would use the identity of homosexuals against themselves, demanding money from them under the threat of being outed in open society (5). 


Murphy was also a pimp. In maybe one of the most disgusting crimes that organized crime has ever associated with, Murphy pimped out underage boys to wealthy pedophiles. Murphy would use the Stonewall as a way to lure underage boys into his clutches. 
Former Lucchese crime family associate turned government witness Henry Hill says this about the lengths that the Mafia would go to make money:
"There is no line that they draw, as far as luring underage girls, teen prostitution. Most of those guys do not have consciences; they'll do anything, and they'll go to any lengths to make an illegal dollar as long as they don't have to use the sweat of their brow." In his time, Hill said that child prostitution was a big enough taboo to be off limits for the Lucchese family. But that doesn't mean it didn't happen then, or especially now. "There's a lot of people in organized crime, a lot of bosses, families, that don't condone it. But some do, and they don't care what they have to do to make a buck."(6)


While the Mafia was tolerant of the gay community to make money off of, a homosexual lifestyle within the ranks of the Mafia is not tolerated. If you are a member of the Mafia, just the suspicion of being a homosexual is an instant death sentence. 
This can be seen in the murder of John D'Amato. 
More recently, former Mafia hitman Robert Mormando lived in the closet the entire time he was executing people for Gambino crime family capo Vincent Gotti, brother of former Gambino boss John Gotti. Mormando, who came out in open court, explained that he had to keep his sexuality a closely guarded secret, for fear he would be killed(8). 



Lacking running water, the Stonewall Inn wasn't a fancy joint. The ability to cut corners,  like serving watered down drinks and the use of a bathtub filled with water to rinse glasses out, made even the Stonewall's most loyal patrons refer to it as "a dive". But this did not stop people from coming. This was one of the only few locations in the city where a person could be themselves. They could turn on the jukebox and dace they way they wanted to the songs they wanted to hear.



In 1989, in an effort to install his influence over the New Jersey DeCavalcante crime family, Gambino crime family boss John Gotti reached out to DeCavalcante capo D'Amato to take control of the family after its new acting boss, Giovonni Riggi, was murdered. After he became boss of the DeCavalcante family, D'Amato got into a fight with his girlfriend; who spread rumors that D'Amato frequented gay bars. Soon after the rumors started, D'Amato disappeared and was never found. 20 years later Anthony Capo, a former DeCavalcante soldier, testified in court that he murdered D'Amato once he found out about his secret lifestyle. Capo reasoned:

"Nobody's gonna respect us if we have a gay homosexual boss sitting down discussing La Cosa Nostra buisness."(7)

In the sixth season of The Sopranos, while the audience knew since the fifth season, it is uncovered by the Mafia that one of its own is a homosexual. Vito Spatafore(Joseph R. Gannascoli), who is a capo in Tony Soprano's(James Gandolfini) fictitious DiMeo crime family, is seen by an associate of a rival crime family dressed provocatively while dancing with a man at a gay bar. As soon as he is seen, Vito skips town to upstate New York, knowing the consequences of his secret lifestyle. 

As soon as his fellow mobsters find out about his sexuality, the majority of them are disgusted and demand his death. In the shows effort to humanize Tony, he is the only one that disapproves of Vito's lifestyle while having a reluctant "live and let live" attitude towards him. When Vito eventually returns to New Jersey and reaches out to Tony, he first considers letting him back in the family, for a price. But Tony soon realizes that the homophobia long installed in the Mafia will get in the way of business. Even though Tony orders Vito's murder, rival mob boss Phil Leotardo(Frank Vincent) and his henchmen surprise Vito in his hotel room and brutally beat him to death. 

While the Stonewall Inn will be full of celebration this anniversary because of the long overdue demise of DOMA(Defense of Marriage Act), it should come to mind that when society tries to oppress any kind of subculture with laws, society is driving them into the underworld. And while the underworld, and the Mafia, both have a long track record of sheltering those oppressed throughout history, it is usually for financial opportunity and exploitation rather than for social justice.



Notes

(1) http://www.civilrights.org/archives/2009/06/449-stonewall.html
(2) Edsall pg 333
(3) http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig11/russell-t2.1.1.html
(4) http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/stonewall-mafia/
(5) http://bitterqueen.typepad.com/friends_of_ours/2010/04/mafia-exploitation-of-kids-really-a-new-low.html
(6) http://bitterqueen.typepad.com/friends_of_ours/2010/04/mafia-exploitation-of-kids-really-a-new-low.html
(7) http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-201_162-551842.html
(8) http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/mob-hit-man-closet-robert-mormando-gay-regrets-life-crime-lawyer-article-1.383449

Legions of the Street

You were around the old-timers who dreamed up how the Families should be organized, how they based it on the old Roman legions and called them Regimes, Capos, and Soldiers. And it worked.

-Tom Hagen, The Godfather: Part II

While a quote from The Godfather: Part II, the fact that the modern New York Mafia crime family structure was based off the organizational structure of the Roman Legion is cemented in the testimony of Mafia informant and former Genovese crime family soldier, Joseph Valachi. Besides being the first person to ever to publicly acknowledge the existence of the Mafia, Valachi also divulged the shadowy meeting that Salvatore Maranzano assembled after defeating his chief underworld rival Joe "The Boss" Masseria in the Castellammarese War of 1931. 

"Mr. Maranzano called a meeting. I was just notified. I don't remember how, but I was notified. It was held in the Bronx in a big hall around Washington Avenue. The place was packed. There was at least four or five hundred of us jammed in. There were members there I never saw before. I only knew the ones that I was affiliated with during the war.....We were all standing. There wasn't any room to sit. Religious pictures had been put on the walls, and there was a crucifix over the platform at one end of the hall where Mr. Maranzano was sitting. He had done this so that if outsiders wondered what the meeting was about, they would think we belonged to some kind of a holy society....In the new setup he was going to be Capo di tutti Capi, meaning the "Boss of all Bosses." He said that from here on we were going to be divided up into new Families. Each Family would have a boss and an underboss. Beneath them there would also be lieutenants, or caporegimes. To us regular members, which were soldiers, he said "You will each be assigned to a lieutenant., When you learn who he is, you will meet all the other men in your crew. Then he tells us how we are going to operate, like if a soldier has the need to see his boss, he has to go first to his lieutenant. If it is important enough, the lieutenant will arrange the appointment. In other words, a soldier ain't allowed to go running all the time to his boss. The idea is to keep everything businesslike and in line." (1)

Valachi would also say:

"He [Maranzao] was an educated man. He studied for the priesthood in the old country, and I understand he spoke seven languages. I didn't know until later that he was a nut about Julius Caesar and even had a room in the house full of nothing but books about him. That's where he got the idea for the new organization." (2)

Just as the Romans adopted the Greek phalanx to organize their army, Maranzano attempted to install the organization and discipline that led the Roman Legions to victory all over the Mediterranean to the American underworld. If Maranzano likened these new organized crime families in New York as the legions of Rome, then he must have also likened himself as Caesar. 

In ancient Rome, unlike today, soldiers did not swear allegiance to the state, but rather to their commander, be it a general, Roman consul, or eventually an Emperor.(3)  After a soldier took the oath of Sacramentum, his actions would be completely dictated by his commander. If a legionary's commander told him to kill something, It would be killed. Even if a commander gave an order to his legions to slaughter Roman citizens, it would be done. The only way a legionary could be released from his oath was through death or injury to the point of demobilization.(4)

Similar to the oath taken by Roman Legionaries, once a member of the Mafia was inducted into a certain crime family, he would take on the title of "soldier", and his complete loyalty was to his boss. His crime family would come before his real family, his country, and even God. If his capo would tell him to kill something, It would be killed. And much like the Roman legion, the only way to escape this oath of loyalty was through death.(5)

In proclaiming himself Capo di tutti capi, the boss of bosses, Maranzano was proclaiming himself Caesar of the American Mafia. Maranzano would not only command his own crime family, but would hold supreme authority over the entire Mafia. All the Mafia families would act as his legions as they conquered the American underworld. 

Unfortunately for Maranzano, as soon as he came into power, there were people plotting his demise. Labeled as a "Mustache Pete", because his blind faith to old world traditions and vendettas were getting in the way of making money, Maranzano would share a similar fate with Caesar. A little over four months after his ascension into the position of Capo di tutti capi, Maranzano was assassinated in his office on September 10th, 1931. Behind his assassination were the younger faction of the Mafia, lead by future bosses Charlie Luciano, Frank Costello, and Vito Genovese. After his assassination, Charlie Luciano disbanded the title of Capo di tutti capi, and would create the Mafia Commission, a U.N. style way of governing the Mafia, where every boss of a family could contribute to a decision, rather than just have one dictator governing the entire organization.(6)

Though the Roman Army during Caesar's rule had far more of a hierarchical structure than the American Mafia, this may be how Maranzano visualized his new organization.

American Mafia Structure Under Maranzano        

Capo di tutti capi

  Boss of a Family

  Underboss 

  Caporegime 

 Soldier 

Roman Legion Structure Under Caesar

Consul
Praetor
Legatus Legionis
Centurion
Munifex

                              

Capo di tutti capi-Consul

  Boss of a Family-Praetor

Underboss-Legatus Legionis

Caporegime-Centurion

Soldier- Munifex

Of course, since the position of Capo di tutti capi was disbanded by Charlie Luciano, and the Mafia commission was established, a boss of a Mafia family answered to no one, and held complete authority over his borgata. 


Notes
(1) The Valachi Papers. Peter Mass. Pg 83-85
(2) The Valachi Papers. Peter Mass. Pg 83-85
(3) Cicero and the Roman Republic. F.R. Cowell. Pg 39-40
(4) Becoming a Soldier: The Recruit of the Republican Army. www.roman-empire.net/army/becoming.html
(5) Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires. Selwyn Raab. Pg 1-8.
(6) Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires. Selwyn Raab. Pg 29-32.

Barbarians at the Gate: Life After Not Absolutely Loving the Remake of "Evil Dead"

I thought Evil Dead (2013) was OKAY. There. I said it.

After the screen dimmed, one of my best friends looked me in the eyes to gauge my reaction. After shrugging my shoulders, signaling that I thought the movie was okay, I literally saw 9/11 happen in his eyes.

Departing the movie theater still friends(even though I'm still expecting a friendship pink slip in the mail), on the way home I stopped by my local watering hole to meet up with some other friends. At the bar was an array of characters: close friends I have known my entire life(and that threatened to burn my house down in the first grade), friends that I see now and then at bars, and new friends that I have met for the first time that night. Though most of the people from all three groups have not met each other until that night, they all had one thing in common: they absolutely loved the new Evil Dead movie. After saying that I thought the movie was okay; watchable but nothing special, I seemed to completely alienate the rest of the bar.

I empathized with Western Roman Emperor Honorius as this massive barbarian army surrounded me; shouting their love for the new Evil Dead while ransacking my criticisms. That's when I suddenly realized: this is now my life. 

I love Evil Dead (1981), Evil Dead 2 (1987), and Army of Darkness (1992). I don't know why I seem to be the only one who saw Evil Dead (2013), and really felt nothing afterwords. I didn't regret seeing it, but I wouldn't sit through it again.

Gore is both the strongest and weakest thing about the Evil Dead remake. The movie is technically stunning and probably one of the most accomplished in its use of practical special affects and makeup. There are scenes in the film that I couldn't believe weren't CGI. But at the same time, I feel like the only reason this movie was made was just to be gory; everything else is secondary. Evil Dead isn't the slightest bit scary, containing the few cheap jump scares that infest every modern horror movie. It seems that instead of making a movie that is scary, director Fede Alvarez wanted to just make a movie that was supremely gory. But gore alone just doesn't do it for me anymore.

Another major problem with the Evil Dead remake is that it constantly kowtows to the original in all the wrong ways. It never gets to be its own film. While those that defend the new Evil Dead insist that this is a totally new re-imagining of Sam Raimi's classic, the film is littered with shots taken straight from the original. Now, I'm fine with using shots that nod to the original, but it doesn't work in this film. The fast camera movement and demon POV shots seem out of place in this grim re-imagining of Evil Dead. What the film should have borrowed from the original is more of the camp and charm. There is no humor in the remake of Evil Dead. The film takes itself far too seriously. There is no way you can make tree rape not funny. Sorry.

Lets talk about the deadites, if you can call them that. I don't think you can, because nobody was really dead. In this modern twist, Evil Dead sort of feels like zombie backwash. Demonic possession is spread through infection via blood transfusion and bites. Also, these deadites aren't scary. In the original Evil Dead, they filled the film with dread as they taunted their victims; playing around with them. Again, the deadites in this film feel more like zombies. Part of the reason I think the deadites aren't that effective in the film, is because it takes itself so seriously. The deadites in the original Evil Dead are scary at times, but they are also really silly.

Acting wise, Jane Levy (Mia) is really the only one who shines in this film. But again, gore was the main character, and it performed spectacularly.

The biggest problem with Evil Dead (2013), is that it brings nothing new to the genre. Everything in this film has been done already. It fails to be singular enough in its achievement to be memorable. I just feel that this movie is Evil Dead for people who haven't seen the original Evil Dead.

Though I said Evil Dead brings nothing new to the table, it has changed my life. As the weeks go on, I'm sure I will find myself defending against larger and larger hordes of fanatical Evil Dead zealots, as we argue over drinks or maybe knives. The Goths are at the damn gate, and somebody has to keep them back.

Now, even though I said a lot of negative stuff about Evil Dead (2013), I'm not saying you shouldn't go see it. When you are talking about modern horror movies, especially modern horror remakes, you are wading through a swamp of shit. The remake of Evil Dead is one of the better horror remakes I've seen in a while. While its reliance on the original stops the film from reaching its true potential, it does set it apart from other modern horror movies. Director Fede Alvarez seems like a good new addition to modern horror, I just want to see a feature of his that is his own, not a poor, modern imitation.

Stay after the credits. Best part of the film.

Sons of Hades: How a Gang War Contributed to the Downfall of the Roman Republic

“I AM A SON OF HADES!” Cries Lucius Vorenus(Kevin McKidd) after destroying a statue of Concordia, Roman goddess of harmony. But this was no random act of iconoclasm. Vorenus has been charged by First Counsel Mark Antony(James Purefoy) to stop a violent street war that has been brewing between the various gangs of Rome for control of the Aventine. After frightening the other gang bosses into submission by the destruction of Concodia, Vorenus is able to establish himself in the Roman underworld and quell the hostilities between the gangs; at least for the moment.

Though the following is a fictional scene from HBO’s Rome, Ancient Rome did have organized street gangs. The best account of these gangs can be found in Andrew William Lintott’s Violence in Republican Rome. In his book, Lintott describes what could be considered the first gang war in recorded history between Titus Annius Milo and Publius Clodius Pulcher. To the readers who are unfamiliar with Roman history, it should be noted that neither Milo nor Clodius made their living as street thugs; these men were not archaic Tony Sopranos. Both Clodius and Milo held political positions in the Roman Republic. The late Republic of Rome gives us a perfect example of how gangsters of the state and armed thugs can form a symbiotic relationship.

Clodius was a populist and wanted to hold the office of tribune of the plebeians, who were the free, land owning, non-aristocratic citizens of Rome. The problem was that Clodius was a patrician from the house of Claudius. Due to his noble birth, Clodius legally wasn’t allowed to become tribune of the plebs. Thankfully, for Clodius, this was all fixed by proconsul and Pontifex Maximus Gaius Julius Caesar. Before Caesar departed to his new command in the Gallic Wars of 58 B.C., he passed a law allowing Clodius to be adopted by a pleb named Fonteius, who was fifteen years younger than Clodius(1). In giving Clodius the opportunity to become Tribune of the Plebs, Caesar was unleashing a political gangster upon a political foe of a close ally; the infamous Marcus Tullius Cicero.
  
Cicero had made an enemy of both Marcus Licinius Crassus(who was apart of the First Triumvirate along with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Caesar) and Clodius. Cicero was responsible for unraveling a conspiracy aimed at overthrowing the Republic, lead by Crassus’s protégé Catiline(2). Cicero also successfully struck down a land bill proposed by Publius Servilius Rullus, which would have given Crassus a political edge over Pompey(3). Cicero had crossed Clodius when he ousted him in the Bona Dea scandal. The Roman festival of Bona Dea(the good goddess) could only be attended by women. Clodius, either in jest or to continue an alleged affair with Caesar’s current wife, dressed up as a woman and attended the festival. After he was discovered at the festival, a mob of angry women attacked him; Cloidus barley escaped. Clodius’s stunt was considered such a sacrilege that he was brought to trial. His defense was that there was no way that he could have been at the festival, because he had been at an exhibition fifty miles away from Rome on the day in question. Cicero destroyed Clodius’s alibi by claiming that he had visited him the same day of the festival. There was no way that Clodius could have been fifty miles away from Rome and would have been able to visit Cicero in Rome on the same day. Even though Clodius was acquitted of all charges, he never forgave Cicero(4).

Elected as Tribune of the Plebs in 59 B.C., Clodius proposed a series of bills that would help him establish his gang. The first bill would reinstate and would allow the new organization of collegia, which functioned as associations for craftsmen, guilds, and religious cults. The majority of  collegia were dismantled in 64 B.C. by the senate, after several of them were involved in the before mentioned failed Catiline conspiracy. Clodius eventually would use members of the collegia as enforcers of his own political will. The second bill that Clodius proposed would give free grain to all citizens of Rome, making him ever more popular with the plebs. Clodius was able to supply free grain to the people of Rome by adding the kingdom of Cyprus into the Roman Empire, which would increase the supply of the dole(5). To pass these bills, Clodius would count on Cicero for his support. While Cicero wholeheartedly agreed not to veto any of Clodius’s bills, once they were passed, he strongly supported a resolution to review Caesar’s acts as consul. With plebs pouring in to join Clodius’s new political organizations, he was building up and arming gangs that would try to silence both Cicero and Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis, who were the two biggest threats to Caesar’s growing power. His criminal organization became so large that he had to appoint faithful lieutenants to take charge of a specific gang. The names of these ancient capos(6) are given to us by Cicero, but besides their names, nothing is really known about them(7).  Soon after proposing that Cypress was absorbed into the expanding Roman Empire, Clodius also proposed a law that would force exile upon any Roman citizen that executed another Roman citizen without a proper trial. The proposal and eventual passing of this law was no random act. Four years before, in 64 B.C., Cicero condemned four members of the botched Catiline conspiracy to death without a proper trial. It was obvious that the passing of this law was in order to neutralize Cicero(8).

Realizing that political aid was not coming, Cicero fled to Greece in 58 B.C. Now with Caesar gone, Clodius began turning his armed gangs on those who helped him get elected. Pompey, who supported the public’s cry for Cicero’s return, was besieged by Clodius’s gang of armed thugs. Clodius threatened to kill Pompey and burn his house down if he continued to ask for the return of Cicero. After being roughed up in the street by Clodius’s thugs, Pompey would not leave his house. Since Roman armies could not legally enter the city, there was no armed force to stop Clodius‘s street gangs. In an effort to destabilize Clodius’s new powerful grip over the streets of Rome, Pompey supported Titus Annius Milo(9). Milo, a tribune himself, organized his own street gang to fight Clodius. But there was a big difference between the gangs of Clodius and Milo. Clodius’s gangs were mostly made up of loyal supporters of the collegia; either of craftsmen or slaves. Milo hired gladiators or mercenaries from outside of Rome to be apart of his gang. The two gangs clashed in the streets of Rome. Milo’s small band of mercenary gladiators easily defeated Clodius’s large force of dedicated volunteers(10).

As the violence between the two gangs continued, legally, it was ignored. In his book, Violence in Republican Rome, Linott states that as long as the gangs could prove that the other gang struck first, self defense was totally legal(11). But with the streets of Rome running red with blood, the plebs began to abandon the violent tactics of Clodius. In 57 B.C., when consideration of letting Cicero return to Rome was discussed, Clodius and his gang attacked the assembly, killing several in the Fourm. Cicero’s brother, Quintus Cicero, was only able to escape by hiding under a slain corpse(12). This type of violence was commonplace every time the return of Cicero was considered, even in the Senate. Clodius would strike, and Milo would respond with blood. Eventually, the vote to allow Cicero to return to Rome was passed, and he returned to cheering crowds in 57 B.C.

Cicero returned to a Rome on the brink of chaos. His return did not end the gang war between Clodius and Milo, and Cicero allied himself with Milo in an attempt to defeat Clodius. Beside the streets of Rome in shambles, the Senate was equally in poor shape. Without Cicero’s skeptical voice in the senate, glorified tales of Caesar’s victories in Gaul strengthened his political support immensely. Soon even Crassus(part of the First Triumvirate) departed Rome for war against the Parthians, where eventually his army would be decimated; leaving Caesar as the new great general of Rome.

The animosity between the two gangs continued. Clodius harassed Cicero with violence. Armed men chased off workers building Cicero’s new house, and Clodius, accompanied with an armed entourage, would stalk Cicero through the city; waiting for their time to strike(13). The gang violence lasted until 52 B.C., when Clodius was finally struck down in a gang battle on the Appian Way. In his book Pompey: The Republican Prince, Peter Greenhalgh describes Clodius’s demise:

“On 18 January the crisis was precipitated by a fatal encounter between Clodius and Milo on the Appian Way, the former riding back to Rome from a visit to Aricia, the latter driving out to Lanuvium. As they passed each other, one of the gladiators in Milo’s armed entourage picked a quarrel with one of Clodius’ slaves, and when Clodius looked round to see what was happening, he was spitted by a javelin. The Clodians carried their wounded leader into a wayside inn, but Milo had him hauled out and finished off in the middle of the road.”

After Clodius’s murder, Sextus Clodius, a relative of Clodius, took over his gangs and exacted revenge on the city. Clodius’s naked body was carried through the city, deposited in the Senate House, and then it was set on fire, acting as a funeral pyre. Milo’s house was attacked by Clodius’s men, only to be fended off by archers. Anyone walking the streets was harassed or even murdered(14).

Out of desperation to end the violence, the Senate decided to make Pompey sole consul(Crassus died in 53 and Caesar was in Gaul, leaving Pompey the sole power in the city), giving him dictatorship powers. The Senate was so desperate, that even the strict constitionalist Cato agreed to the decree. Pompey now had the power to raise troops to restore order to the city. As Consul,  Pompey passed a series of laws that exasperated the relationship between he and Caesar and isolated Caesar’s allies, which helped lead to the oncoming civil war(15). Milo was blamed for Clodius’s death and was brought to trial. Cicero came to his defense, but the unrelenting plebs would often interrupt his speaking, despite Pompey’s soldiers standing by. Milo would eventually be condemned for Clodius’s death, and faced exile in modern day Marseille. Three years after Pompey was made lead consul to end the violence sparked by this gang war, Caesar and his army crossed the Rubicon. Caesar taking his legions pass this river was one of the most vile acts of treason a Roman could commit, and it would be the beginning of the civil war between Pompey and Caesar, signaling the end of the Republic.

Would have Caesar allowed Clodius to become Tribune of the Plebs if he would have known what violence he would have unleashed upon Rome? It’s hard to say. For a brief period of time, Clodius could have been considered the most powerful man in Rome, surpassing even Pompey and Caesar. Illegally taking his legions across the Rubicon upon his return to Rome, it would be hard to say if Caesar, if he wasn’t away in Gaul, would have waited for the Senate to give him legal power to deal with the violence caused by these organized gangs. According to Cicero in his Pro Milone, his speech defending Milo, he claimed that Mark Antony tried to assassinate Clodius earlier in 53 B.C. Antony, who was a former member of Clodius’s gang, at this time was openly Caesar’s man. It could be that Caesar, resenting Clodius for seizing street power in Rome, could have put his loyal friend up to assassinating Clodius in the forum . Rather Caesar ordered the death of Clodius or not, the assassination attempt failed. Clodius was able to avoid death this time, just to meet it on the Appian way months later. It should be mentioned that although most historians regard Cicero’s claim about this attempt to be true, there are skeptics. Notably among them is Dean Anthony Alexander of the University of Otago, whose paper, Marc Anthony’s Assault of Publius Clodius: Fact or Ciceronian Fiction?, which is available online, suggests that either Cicero invented the assassination attempt against Clodius, or he radically misinterpreted it to the public.

It would be grossly inaccurate to claim that the Roman Republic collapsed simply because of organized gang warfare in Rome, but it being one of the principal factors certainly deserves more discussion. Because of Clodius and Milo’s gang war, Pompey was given dictatorship powers over Rome, which exasperated the tension between Pompey and Caesar, leading to civil war and the death of the Republic.


Endnotes
(1) In his book, The Education of Julius Caesar, Arthur D. Kahn references the adoption ceremony that Caesar performed for Clodius.


(2) W.K. Lacey, in his book Cicero, goes into detail about Cicero’s speeches against Catiline.

(3) Peter Greenhalgh references the proposed land bills proposed by Rullus, and how Pompey benefited from them being struck down by Cicero, in Pompey: The Republican Prince.

(4) The entire Bona Dea scandal, and Clodius’s alleged affair with Caesar’s wife, can be found in Kahn’s The Education of Julius Caesar.

(5) A majority of Clodius’s acts as Tribune of the Plebs can be found in F.R. Cowell’s Cicero and the Roman Republic.

(6) A Capo or Caporegime is a ranking term used in the hierarchy of the Mafia. A Capo is a captain of a crew of soldiers.

(7) Cicero gives the names of Clodius’s lieutenants in de Domo sua, his speech against Clodius. It can also be found in Andrew Linott's Violence in Republican Rome.

(8) Clodius passing this law, and its effects on Cicero can be found in Cowell’s Cicero and the Roman Republic.


(9) Clodius’s harassment of Pompey can be found in Greenhalgh’s Pompey: The Republican Prince.

(10) Descriptions of the two gangs can be found in Linott's Violence in Republican Rome.

(11) Again, see Linott’s Violence in Republican Rome.

(12) Clodius’s exploits can be found in any of the sources listen thus far, but Cowell’s Cicero and the Roman Republic is recommended.


(13) Clodius’s harrasment of Cicero can be found in Cowell’s Cicero and the Roman Republic.

(14) The details of the aftermath of Clodius’s death can be found in Cowell’s Cicero and the Roman Republic and in Kahn’s The Education of Julius Caesar.

(15) Discussed in Kahn’s The Education of Julius Caesar.

Why Valentine's Day is the Best Day of the Year!

I know what most of you are thinking at this exact moment: “100% of women would rather be operated on by an abortionist with Parkinson’s disease before spending a minute in the same room with Dexter, why would he enjoy celebrating Valentine's Day?”

Well, it’s not to increase abortion rates (well OK, maybe it is).

Here's why, and to appreciate it, a brief history of the Chicago underworld is necessary.

In the early 1900’s James "Big Jim" Colosimo, former Precinct Captain of Chicago's First Ward, established himself as “boss” of Chicago. Colosimo and his wife ran a chain of brothels that earned more than $600,000 a year. This made Colosimo the perfect target for the infamous Black Hand extortionist that plagued Italian immigrants during the early years of the twentieth century. 

You also must keep in mind that this was a time when the Mafia wasn't like the Mafia we are familiar with. It wasn't until 1931 that the Mafia was reorganized and took the shape of the national crime syndicate that we all recognize today. Before prohibition, the Mafia wasn't even the dominate criminal force in the American Underworld. Several other Italian gangs (like the ‘Ndrangheta from Calabria, and the Comorra from Naples) rivaled the Sicilian Mafia for underworld dominance in America. Not to mention the hordes of native and Irish gangs that also stood in their way.

Anyway, by 1909, the threats of the Black Hand extortionist had become so dire, Colosimo’s wife asked her nephew Johnny “The Fox” Torrio to travel from New York to Chicago to help them solve their problem. Johnny Torrio had been a member of the Five Points Gang and the James Street Gang, alongside with future Mafia bigwig Charlie “Lucky” Lucaino.

The solution to Torrio was simple. He just hired two New York thugs to murder the extortionist when they showed up to collect their money. Colosimo was so grateful he made Torrio number two in his criminal empire, which mainly consisted of prostitution and gambling.

Things had been going so well for Torrio that by 1919 he brought over a young, violent hoodlum by the name of Al Capone to help him in his business ventures.

The 18th Amendment was passed on January 16, 1919. This made the production and consumption of alcohol in the United States illegal, causing organized crime groups like the Mafia to profit greatly from both political and religious fanaticism.

As many other leaders of various organized crime groups, Torrio saw this as a perfect business venture to save his organization from extinction. Colosimo didn’t agree. Colosimo forbade Torrio to bootleg any illicit liquor to the various speakeasies that were sprouting up all over Chicago.

Torrio knew that if he wasn't going to dominate the new bootlegging business in Chicago, somebody else would. That’s why Torrio allegedly had Colosimo assassinated on May 11, 1920. This betrayal would be a prelude to the violence generated by organized crime for dominance over the bootlegging racket in Chicago.

With Colosimo out of the way, Torrio took control of his new empire with Capone second in command. With Torrio at the helm, and Capone making sure that speakeasy operators were purchasing their beer, the Torrio/Capone organization took control of most of the South Side of Chicago.

Trying to avoid the bloody turf battles that were about to be unleashed on Chicago, Torrio met with various leaders of bootlegging organizations and carved out territories for them to operate in. Torrio would take the South Side. Dion O’ Banion, leader of the predominantly Irish North Side Gang, took the North Side, and the Sicilian Genna Brothers would take Chicago’s downtown region.

Clashes soon started happening between the Genna’s and O’ Banion. The Genna brothers wanted to have O’ Bannion assassinated, but since they were Sicilians, they would have to get the permission of the governing Mafia body in Chicago before they could make the hit.

The governing Sicilian Mafia body at the time was known as the Unione Siciliana, an organization originally set up to help Sicilian immigrants get settled, but now had become corrupted by Sicilian gangsters and was a front for what was then the American Mafia. Again, at this time, before reorganization in 1931, you must have been a full blooded Sicilian in order to be a member of the Mafia; other Italians could not be a part of the organization. Capone was denied membership because his background was Neapolitan, not Sicilian.

The man in charge of the Unione Siciliana at the time was Mike Merlo. Merlo abhorred violence and denied the fearsome Genna brothers permission to have O’ Banion assassinated. While being alive and in control of the governing Mafia body in Chicago, Merlo was able to keep the peace between the various criminal organizations.

Mike Merlo died of cancer on November 8, 1924. Two days later the gangs of Chicago broke into open warfare.

The assassination of Dion O’ Banion on November 10, 1924, by both the Genna brothers and Torrio’s South Side gang, triggered a series of events that would eventually crescendo into the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.

The death of Mike Merlo meant that someone else would have to take leadership of the governing body of the Mafia.

Angelo Genna, the youngest and most volatile of the six Genna brothers would take Merlo's position as president. Capone, desperate to dominate the organization, had a close ally, Antonio Lombardo, that he would have liked to have seen as head of the Unione.

This plan made by the Neapolitan Capone didn't sit well with the Sicilian Gennas, who, as members of the hierarchy of the Unione, saw the position of president as one of prestige and honor among their Sicilian brethren. The brothers quickly rallied and pressed hard to put Angelo in as the next president. Capone, unhappy at the turn of events, bided his time under the patient leadership of Torrio.

O’Bannon’s death would soon be avenged. In January 1925, a retaliation from the North Side gang ended up with the attempted assassination of Johnny Torrio. While Torrio survived the ambush right outside of his apartment, he retired from the soon to be bloody streets of Chicago, and left his underworld empire to Capone and moved to Italy. Torrio would later return to the United States and would be a key player in the reorganization of the American Mafia in 1931.

His rule lasting a little over five months, in May, 1925, Hymie Weiss , now leader of the Irish North Side Gang, dispatched assassins that chased down Angelo Genna in a high speed car chase and then shot him to death. Angelo's death and the loss of leadership of the Unione Siciliana were the least of the remaining brothers' worries. Soon after Angelo’s murder, two of the six brothers: Mike and Antonio Genna were also murdered. In a period of 44 days, three of the Genna brothers were killed. The remaining Genna brothers: Peter, Sam, and Vincenzo fled to Sicily, leaving Capone in control of his new empire to take over their rackets.

With Angelo Genna being dispatched so quickly, the Unione Siciliana needed yet another leader. Capone still pushed for his faithful ally, Antonio Lombardo, to become president of the Unione, but lost again to a man by the name of Samuel Samuzzo Amatuna. Unfortunately for Amatuna, his reign would just last a week shorter than Genna’s, thanks to assassins quickly dispatched by Capone.

With the death of Amatuna in November, 1925, Al Capone was finally able to place his own man, Lombardo, into the leadership of the Unione Siciliana. It was not an easy task. Opposing the Capone interests was Giuseppe Aiello, one of the nine members active in the Unione. Aiello also desired the seat of power for himself.

While trying to dominate the local Mafia, Capone’s relationship with the North Side Gang continued to sour. On September 20, 1926, Capone was having lunch with bodyguard Frank Rio at the Hawthorne Hotel when a caravan of cars cruised past the building and riddled it with hundreds of submachine gun bullets. Hymie Weiss, then leader of the North Side Gang, and a bodyguard were later assassinated on October 11, 1926, in a hail of gunfire while crossing the street, leaving George “Bugs” Moran to take control of the North Side Gang.

Desperate to defeat both Capone and Lombardo, and secure his influence over the Unione Siciliana, Giuseppe Aiello turned to Bugs Moran and the North Side Gang for assistance. After several months of “peace”, assassins of Moran and brothers, Frank and Peter Gusenberg, gunned down Lombardo in a busy Chicago street on September 7th , 1928.

With the assassination of Lombardo, the Unione needed yet ANOTHER leader. Aiello was yet again denied leadership and another Capone ally, Pasqualino "Patsy" Lolordo, took the position. Shortly after, on January 8, 1929, "Patsy" Lolordo was shot to death in his house by an unknown gunman…..but you could probably guess who he worked for by now. And guess who still didn't get to be President of the Unione? That’s right! Joseph ''Hop Toad'' Guinta took over leadership of the Unione Siciliana.

It didn't take long for Capone to figure out that the demise of both Lolordo and Lomardo were carefully orchestrated by Giuseppe Aiello. Capone was planning, along with one of his top triggerman, "Machine Gun" Jack McGurn, a damaging retaliatory response that would be remembered throughout history as the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.

The plan was fairly simple. While Capone was away on vacation at his Florida estate(in order to have a solid alibi), assassins disguised as cops would be waiting outside one of Moran’s garages. When Moran would enter, the “police” would barge in on them, stage a raid, and then shoot Moran and his men.

At around 10:30 a.m. on February, 14, 1929, the Moran gang had already arrived at the warehouse. However, Moran himself was not inside. One account states that Moran was supposedly approaching the warehouse, spotted the police car, and fled the scene to a nearby coffee shop. Another account was that Moran was simply late getting there.

The lookouts that Capone had placed across the street to insure that Moran himself was inside the garage mistook one of Moran’s men for Moran himself. Thinking that Moran was inside the garage, Capone’s lookouts signaled for the assassins to enter.

Witnesses outside the garage saw a Cadillac sedan pull to a stop in front of the garage. Four men, two dressed in police uniform, emerged and walked inside. The two phony police, carrying shotguns, entered the rear portion of the garage and found members of Moran's gang. The killers told the seven men to line up facing the back wall. There was apparently not any resistance, as the Moran men thought their captors were the real authorities. Then the two "police officers" signaled the pair in civilian clothes. Two of the killers started shooting with Thompson sub-machine guns. All seven men were killed in a volley of seventy machine-gun bullets and two shotgun blasts, according to the coroner's report. To show bystanders that everything was under control, the men in street clothes came out with their hands up, prodded by the two uniformed cops.

The seven men that were killed that day were: James Clark, Frank and Pete Gusenberg(brothers), Adam Heyer, Johnny May, Dr. Reinhardt Schwimmer, and Al Weinshank. All of these men had a position in Moran's criminal operations, from button men to front men.

When Moran heard about the massacre, he checked himself into a hospital. The press eventually found him and when asked who could have done such a thing. Moran responded with: “Only Capone kills like that.”

While Moran himself wasn't killed in the incident, his gang was annihilated.

The North Side Gang eventually lost control over its rackets to the Capone organization, leaving Al Capone completely in control over Chicago. The rest of Moran’s criminal career amounted to nothing more than petty thievery. Moran was arrested in 1946 for robbing $10,000 from a bank messenger. He was convicted and sentenced to prison. Moran later died of cancer on February 25, 1957. He was given a pauper's burial outside of prison.

With virtually every other obstacle out of his way, Capone was in complete control of Chicago. But his plan eventually backfired. The public had grown tired of the gruesome violence in Chicago generated by prohibition. While the St. Valentine's Day Massacre was successful in removing any business opposition from the Capone interest, it had also made national headlines. Finally answering the cries of an outraged public, the Federal Government planed to put Capone behind bars.

Even though Capone was successful in defeating Bugs Moran and the North Side Gang, he still had the treacherous Giuseppe Aiello organizing assassination attempts against him. Capone’s uncanny ability not to get shot, even though several dozen assassination attempts were put in motion against him, forced Aiello to turn to two of Capone’s own assassins to help murder him. Albert Anselmi, John Scalise, as well as the new head of the Unione, Joseph "Hop Toad" Giunta, met with Aiello, who proposed that if Capone was assassinated they could take control of his empire for themselves.

In April 1929, after getting wind of the plot, Capone beat them to the punch and had the three men killed, dispatched with a beating from a baseball bat, followed by a gunshot to the face to finish the job (the scene famed by a number of movies in which Capone murders associates with a baseball bat at a banquet is based on these killings). All three of their bodies were found in an abandoned automobile several days later.

With the death of Joseph "Hop Toad" Giunta, Giuseppe Aiello was finally able to take control of the Unione Siciliana. While Aiello was coming into power, Capone was going to jail. Capone served a one year sentence in prison for carrying a concealed weapon.

While in jail, Capone learned of plans that Aiello again was trying to assassinate him. Capone, finally deciding to assassinate Aiello, bided his time in prison.

On October 23, 1930, with several of his lieutenants being murdered in the previous year, Aiello was making plans to permanently leave Chicago. Upon leaving a local building, a gunman in a second-floor window across the street started firing at him with a submachine gun. Aiello toppled off the building steps and moved around the corner, out of the line of fire. Unfortunately for him, he stumbled into the range of a second submachine gun nest on the third floor of another apartment block. Aiello was taken to Garfield Park Hospital, but was pronounced dead on arrival. The coroner eventually removed 59 bullets from his body.

While Capone was yet again victorious in getting rid of another underworld nemesis, it would be law enforcement that would be his downfall. Elliot Ness(who gets far too much credit for putting away Capone) and his team of “Untouchables” impacted Capone's operations, but it was income tax evasion that was the key weapon. In a number of federal grand jury cases in 1931, Capone was charged with 22 counts of tax evasion and also 5,000 violations of the Volstead Act. On October 17, 1931, Capone was sentenced to eleven years, and following a failed appeal, he began his sentence in 1932.

With prohibition ending, along with a major Mafia revolution and reorganization underway, Capone found himself behind bars.

He would be eventually transferred to Alcatraz prison, where the isolation from the outside world didn't help the syphilis that was slowly eating away at his brain.

After his release, Capone’s mental health had greatly diminished. He often raved on about communists, foreigners, and George Moran, who he was convinced was still plotting to kill him from his Ohio prison cell. On January 21, 1947, Capone suffered a stroke. He regained consciousness and started to improve but contracted pneumonia two days later. Capone then suffered a fatal cardiac arrest the next day at his Florida estate.

Sources:

-The Gangs of Chicago-Herbert Asbury

-The Outfit-Gus Russo

-Capone: The Man and the Era-Laurence Bergreen

-The History of Organized Crime : The True story and Secrets of Global Gangland-David Southwell.

-Organized Crime : An Inside Guide to the World's Most Successful Industry-Paul Lunde.

Colonial Gangster

When one thinks of organized crime in New York, the Mafia or the Irish “Westies” usually comes to mind. But more than a century before the birth of gangsterism, a loose confederacy of poor Irish, African slaves, and Spanish negros formed a primitive organized crime syndicate that dominated the underworld in colonial New York.

In 1741, an alleged conspiracy to burn down New York and murder the white elite was uncovered. The alleged ringleader of this plot was John Hughson, an illiterate, Irish tavern owner who illegally served African slaves. Hughson’s own wife and daughter, and several slaves that frequented his tavern, were also accused of being members in this conspiracy. Daniel Horsmanden, one of the judges who tried these supposed conspirators, collected an assortment of court documents pertaining to the trial and put them into one book, A History of the Negro Plot. While certainly biased towards the existence of this conspiracy, and the lack of innocence of all of those tried, Horsmanden’s documents give us a glimpse of a primitive crime syndicate that operated in colonial New York. But besides Horsmanden’s own biases, the book is filled with testimony of informants who have “flipped” to “rat” on behalf of the government, or slaves, who on the verge of brutal execution, decided to reveal their participation in this “dark confederacy.” So to the historian, the condition under which these witnesses gave their testimony must also be considered.  While this paper deals with the organized gangs that were uncovered during this trial, it will also cover the alleged planning of the conspiracy, which could be argued was an act of organized crime in itself.

New York City always seemed to be a haven for criminals. Fifty percent of all crime that took place in the colonies, occurred in New York. Four times as much theft was reported in the city than the outlaying country side. Surprisingly, slaves were tried for crimes in far fewer numbers then their percentage of population.  To give an example, over ninety percent of all crimes committed in New York were by men. 7.5 percent of those men were committed by blacks. Between the winters of 1740-41, the burglary rate in New York was on the rise. Even though the majority of men tried for crimes against persons and crimes against public order were white, those tried for crimes against property were slaves.  This statistic suggest that while mostly white men were arrested and tried for getting drunk in public and fighting in the streets, slaves were on average were to participate in burglary. In most cases, the victim of these crimes would be the slave masters themselves, who commonly did not report the crimes because of fear they would have to explain to the court why they could not control their slaves. Since slaves, on average, were more likely to commit burglary, why did slaves steal? It could be to fight the institution of slavery itself, or it could be simply out of necessity, for survival. The most likely reason for slaves committing burglary is the same reason that anyone commits burglary, for financial gain.

If slaves stole goods from their masters, then what would they do with it after that? It would be a similar answer to what modern burglars would do, take it to a fence. Defined by Webster dictionary, a “fence” is either a place where stolen goods are purchased or an actual receiver of stolen goods. Both John Hughson and his tavern perfectly fit both of those definitions. As stated earlier, the illiterate Hughson moved to New York from the country to open a tavern. Hughson owned one of the few taverns in New York that catered to slaves, which was illegal. Not only did he allow slaves into his establishment, but he also tolerated the company of slaves personally. Hughson allowing slaves to enter and drink in his establishment would be a trait he would share with gangsters that owned bars in the 20th Century. Several dance halls that operated in the 20s and 30s were owned by Jewish and Italian gangsters. Money, not skin color, being the ultimate admission ticket, race mixing in these clubs became so prevalent that the Klu Klux Klan devoted a considerable amount of resources to destroying them. Also, in the early years of the 20th Century, Mafia owned clubs in  New Orleans housed a new kind of music called “jazz” which was shunned by many of the white, mainstream establishments. Both being the ultra-capitalist, Hughson and his gangster descendants, despite what society would dictate, wouldn't let skin color get in the way of making money.

One of the most frequent group of patrons at Hughson’s tavern was a gang called the Geneva Club. Named after a shipment of Dutch gin that the group stole years earlier from the docks of New York, the Geneva Club was an organized criminal gang of slaves that were responsible for a fair amount of burglary that occurred along the New York waterfront. Lead by slave Caesar Varick, and his friends, Prince Auboyneau and Cuffee Philipse, the Geneva Club was one of the leading criminal groups of New York. The way these gangs would operate is that they would steal goods, and then deliver them to Hughson’s tavern. Hughson, the fence, who would sell the stolen goods would either in return give the gang members money or, most commonly, would pay them in alcohol. But the Geneva Club wasn't the only organized criminal slave gang that operated in the New York underworld. The Smiths Fly Boys, the Long Bridge Boys, and the Free Masons were all slave gangs that burglarized New York City . Even though it is only documented that the Geneva Club used Hughson’s tavern as a fence, it is not out of the question that all the rest of these gangs used Hughson as a source to fence their stolen goods.

The only reason that the conspiracy came to light in the first place was through an act of crime. Christopher Wilson, a cabin boy for an English man of war, was planning to rob the shop of Robert Hogg. The Hoggs, who sold linen, noticed that Wilson was particularly eyeing the Spanish mill coins that Mrs. Hoggs kept in the drawer in the shop. Soon after, on February 28th , the coins disappeared. It is not clear if Wilson stole the coins himself, or if he told members of the Geneva Club about it, or if members of the Geneva Club caught wind of the potential score and decided to muscle in on the burglary for themselves. What is known that the coins were gone. Remembering his fascination with the coins, Mrs. Hoggs told the Sheriff that Wilson had committed the crime. When the Sheriff asked Wilson about it, he claimed that a soldier named John Quinn had shown him the coins at Hughson’s tavern. Days after, the sheriff could not find anybody by the name of Quinn. He questioned Wilson again about the burglary. It is not stated in Horsmanden’s History of the Negro Plot what the Sheriff did to make Wilson confess, but he did. Wilson now told the Sheriff that slaves and Geneva Club members Caesar Varick and Prince Auboyneau committed the crime. But why did Wilson lie to the authorities? And who is this mysterious John Quinn? It was later uncovered that Wilson wasn't exactly lying to the authorities, but he wasn't telling the truth either. One of Caesar’s most popular aliases was John Quinn. In his book The Great New York Conspiracy, Peter Charles Hoffer claims that even Caesar wasn't aware of his alias. Hoffer explains that aliases weren't nicknames like criminals use today, but when criminals would scheme and talk about committing crimes, they would make up names for each other to limit their exposure and conceal their identities.

Both Caesar and Prince were immediately arrested, and since they both had prior convictions for theft, the case seemed to be solved. Probably in an attempt to distance himself from the two gang members, Hughson flipped and admitted to the authorities that both Caesar and Prince were both in his tavern with the stolen coins. The case should have ended here. Both Caesar and Prince were accused by two white men(Wilson and Hughson), and would probably be executed for the crime. But, the spark that would eventually ignite a flair of conspiracy would come from Hughson’s sixteen year old indentured servant, Mary Burton. While out buying candles for Hughson, she admitted to the shop owners, the Kannadys, that she had a greater knowledge of the recent burglary than anyone else. The Kannadys quickly ran to the police and told them that Mary Burton had knowledge of the Hogg’s burglary. When the authorities questioned Burton, she first claimed that she had no such knowledge of the robbery. But as authorities started to put more pressure on her, she broke down in tears. She claimed to the police that if she gave the authorities information that she would be murdered by either Hughson or members of the Geneva Club. Eventually, she would give in to the authorities and became a government witness. Her first revelation was that the Irish prostitute that lived in Hughson’s tavern, Irish Peg, had been intimate with Caesar, and bore his child a year earlier. When this was eventually proven to be true, in Horsmanden’s mind anyway, Burton became a credible witness. Then Burton said that Hughson had stolen goods hidden in his basement. Hughson gave up the goods to the authorities, but claimed he didn't know how they got there.

Over a week after Hughson gave up his goods to the authorities, on March 18th,  a fire broke out at the Fort George. The fire didn't only engulf the Fort, but also the Govenor’s mansion, the armory, and the chapel. Six more fires would break out between March 18th and May 6th. May 6th is also the same day that John Hughson and his wife, Sarah, were both arrested for possession of stolen goods. Who was setting these fires? And why did the fires stop the day that John Hughson was arrested? It was not unusual for criminals to set fire to a residence or a shop to steal people’s goods while the home or business owners were busy trying to put out the flames. Even though it takes place over a century later, this popular criminal act can be seen recreated in Martin Scorsese’s Gangs of New York (2002). Several people whose houses were engulfed in flames complained to local magistrates that they suffered great material losses not by the fire, but rather by people stealing it from them.  Even though the identities or the reason that these fires were started, whispers of conspiracy traveled through New York. Witnesses near the fires claim they saw negroes starting them.

Amid this hotbed of paranoia, a conspiracy began to take shape. While giving testimony about the Hoggs robbery, Burton accidently slipped that she may have known something more about the fires that had been said. When asked, she said she would not divulge the information she had. Horsmaden tried everything, from promising her protection from the people she was about to accuse to telling her that she would see jail time is she stayed silent. It was only the threat of answering to God in the afterlife that shook up Mary Burton enough to talk. She was the first domino to fall. Burton told the grand jury that the same slaves that brought the stolen coins to Hughson’s, Caesar and Prince, along with slave Cuffee Phillips, often met with Hughson to talk about burning down the city, killing all of the white elites, and stealing their goods. After the “revolution”, Hughson would proclaim himself “king” of New York and Caesar would be governor. Hughson went as far as to even purchase eight guns and several swords to arm the criminal insurrection.Barton would admit that over thirty slaves would be apart of this alleged plot and that she witnessed a strange induction ceremony. Backed up by slaves that would eventually give testimony to the government, Hughson would gather the slaves, take out a bible, and swear each of them to an oath to establish code of silence about the plot. Caesar, acting as an enforcer, even put a pistol up to a slave’s chest to force him into the conspiracy.

Not soon after this information came out, both Caesar and Prince were executed, not for their part in this conspiracy, but rather for burglary. The next day, May 12th, John and Sarah Hughson were indicted for their part in the alleged conspiracy. Adding to the charges of “felonious receiving stolen goods”, which they were already charged for on May, 6th. Eventually, a slave named Quaco Roosevelt would be connected to the fires and was arrested. He admitted that he was angry that the Lt. Governor for banning him from seeing his girlfriend, a cook at Fort George. Quaco admits that Hughson put him up to starting the fire at the fort. Another slave, Bastian, testified that Hughson said that he intended to burn down the fort first, so he could disarm the colony. After that, Bastian  claimed that one of the slaves that was accompanying Hughson had something black in his hand, which he planned to use to burn down the fort with. Quaco would eventually be sentence to death for arson. Before his execution, Quaco was asked why did Hughson collude with slaves to burn the city down. Quaco simply replied: “To make himself rich.” Quaco wanted to confess more to the judges, but the mob that was there to see his execution demanded that the stalling stopped and the execution start. Quaco, along with Geneva Club member Cuffee, were both executed at the stake.

By the end of the trial, arraignments were made for 109 slaves. Of those thrown in jail, 72 slaves confessed their part in this “dark confederacy.” Out of all the slaves examined, 13 were burned at the stake and 18 were hung. John Hughson, along with his wife, were both hung, with the Irish prostitute Peg, on June 12th. Up to his death, Hughson claimed that he was never part of or had any knowledge of any conspiracy to set fire to the city and slaughter the white elite. Hughson’s Judas, Mary Burton, received a reward for being the first person to come forward with information about the conspiracy. As an indentured servant, she used her reward money to buy her freedom.

While Horsmanden was certain that most of  those accused were guilty, not all historians agree. So who was guilty of what? Both members of the Geneva Club and John Hughson were definitely both guilty of operating in the criminal underworld of New York. New crimes were even uncovered during the trial. Apparently, members of the Geneva Club heisted a crate of butter and sold it for profit. If any of the testimony in Horsmanden’s book is to be believed, then both Hughson and the Geneva Club decided to take their criminal enterprise to new levels. After taking over the city, Hughson would literally be “boss”, while Caesar would be his lieutenant. But could an illiterate tavern owner be capable of forming such a conspiracy? If so, Hughson didn't seem like he would take over the city for anything other than financial gain. Though being in charge of a gang of slaves, Hughson was never an outspoken abolitionist. He talked about financial equality, but never about equal rights. Hughson’s role and status in the New York underworld, his downfall being a turncoat that testified against him in court, and his sole motivation to “make himself richer”, could make him America’s first colonial gangster.

Sources
-A History of the Negro Plot-John Horsmanden
-The Great New York Conspiracy of 1741-Peter Charles Hoffer
-A History of Negro Slavery in New York-Edgar J. McManus
-The Gangs of New York-Herbert Asbury
-A Renegade History of the United States-Thaddeus Russell
-The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic-Peter Linebauh and Marcus Rediker